Ecce Romani III

Chapter 61: Background Information

Culture/History: The Battle of Pharsalus • Caesar as writer and warrior • Roman warfare

Grammar: Use of the ablative case with special deponent verbs

The Readings

Caesar writes about the battle of Pharsalus in which he defeated Pompey and the Optimates. His work is entitled De Bello Civile and you may recall that his book on the Gallic campaign was titled De Bello Gallico. In both works he writes in the third person. It is generally considered that he wrote both books to promote himself. In the first person his statements might seem boastful -- "How I Got to Be So Great" -- but in the third person a reader might more readily accept the information as factual narrative. The editors chose the selections in Chapters 60 and 61 to demonstrate not only Caesar's military skills but also his human nature. Keep this in mind as you read.

Recall previous events:

Caesar crossed the Rubicon in early 49 BC. What were the circumstances and what did the act ("Alea acta est!") signify?

Who sided with Caesar and who sided with Pompey?

When did Caesar arrive in Egypt and what transpired there?

In the final years of the Republic, Romans experienced civil war three times:

1. Marius v. Sulla (88-82 BC). The circumstances: As consul Marius ordered Sulla out of the conflict with King Mithridates. Sulla angrily marched on Rome with six legions, the first Roman to take arms against the state since her last king, Tarquinius Superbus. When Sulla left for the east, Marius and Cinna (Julius Caesar's father-in-law) retook control of Rome. Sulla won over the armies that had been sent to replace him. He made peace with King Mithridates, settled conflicts in Greece and Asia, and returned to Italy in 83 BC. After a brutal fight he took Rome in 82 BC and began to destroy all his enemies. He published their names on proscription lists and announced that their property would be forfeit to anyone who would kill them. Bloodshed was rampant. Sulla named himself Dictator, increased the powers of the Senate, and reduced the powers of the tribunes. Shortly after he resigned his dictatorship in 78 BC, he died.
   
   
2. Caesar v. Pompey (49-45 BC). Caesar had the upper hand in the battles with Pompey. He crossed into Spain and defeated Pompey's major forces there, but Pompey himself escaped to Greece. Caesar followed him to Thessaly (see if you can find it on a map), where he probably set up his camp on the northern bank of the Enipeus River. Pompey's camp is thought to have been on a plain to the west surrounded by hills. Page 83 of your text shows a battle plan. Other notable battles before and after Pharsalus include

   Zela (47 BC) in Pontus, in which Caesar defeated King Pharnaces ("Veni, vidi, vici").

   Thapsus (46 BC) in North Africa, when Caesar defeated Pompey's forces.

   Munda (45 BC) in Spain, when Caesar wiped out the army commanded by Pompey's sons.

   The poet Lucan lived and wrote during Nero's regime many years later. He created an epic poem about this civil war called Pharsalia. A line of the poem sums up both generals thus:

   Nec quemquam iam ferre potest Caesar priorem, Pompeius parem.
   Caesar cannot tolerate a superior; Pompey cannot tolerate an equal.

   What do you think this means? Discuss it with peers and family.
   
   
3. Antony v. Octavius (33-30 BC). The battle of Actium took place on September 2, 31 BC. Marc Antony fled to Egypt where he died in August of 30 BC.

Reading Notes

Be familiar with these terms:

Passage A

1. in eum...praediceret (line 2) -- officiam means services (of Caesar); eum refers to exercitum, the army.
2. testibus, militibus (line 3) -- datives after utor; in line 5 abuti, ab + utor, also takes a dative.
3. commemoravit (line 3) -- is followed by three infinitives of indirect statement.
4. Note the uses of dative case after dedit (line 6-7).
5. Primus pilus (line 9) -- the term can have two meanings: (a) top ranked century (unit of 60 men), and (b) the top ranked centurion within that century.
6. sequimini (line 10) -- review imperative forms of deponent verbs.
7. dignitatem (line 13) -- refers to the same concept as the Japanese use of "face"; implying both self-respect and respect by others.
8. ut...gratias agas (lines 15-16) -- a substantive clause of result. Although there is no signalling word like "so" or "such" here, a result clause can be the object of the verb facio and its compounds or of accidit: Faciam ut... = "I will do (this) so that...."
9. The 10th legion (lines 16-17) was on the right wing facing Pompey's left wing. It was commanded by Labienus, Caesar's most trusted legatus. What does cornu mean when not used in a military context?
10. sunt prosecuti (line 18) -- reversal of compound verb, common especially in Caesars.

Passage B

1. infestis pilis (line 1) -- position in which the pila were leveled for attack.
2. spatium (lines 4, 6) -- in one case it means an interval of space, in the other an interval of time.
3. Notice the description (lines 12-16) to show action of the battle. What do you see here?
4. Note the linking qui (line 14) used with quorum.
5. aperto (line 17) -- space left open by Caesar's retreating cavalry.

Passage C

1. acies (lines 1, 2) -- A fourth line ("sharp edge") of battle consisting of six cohorts was placed behind the right wing to oppose Pompey's superior cavalry. It shows Caesar knew his foe well (had he studied Pompey's tactics, as though watching an opposing team's practice sessions to understand how to play against them?).

J. Jahnige, September 2003

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