The Republic

Rome began as a city state in 753 BCE. In 509 BCE the monarchy was overturned and Rome became a republic. At this time Rome's control or influence had spread well beyond its own seven hills into Etruria, the Sabine Hills, and beyond. By the first century BCE, Rome controlled all of Italy, all of Sicily, and much of what we know today as the Iberian peninsula, Greece, North Africa, France, Egypt, and Asia Minor. This territorial expansion had unforeseen social consequences.

Military successes were important to gaining and maintaining political power within Rome; thus, politics resulted in pressure to continue expansion into new territories. But gaining a reputation as a good military leader was more important to an ambitious Roman than sound administration of the new provinces. (In one famous example of administrative abuse, the people in Sicily were so upset by the corruption of their Roman governor that, when his term was over, they sued him in the Roman courts, with Cicero acting as the Sicilians' advocate.)

Political rivalries degenerated into civil disorder when partisan groups formed to support, sometimes with violence, their particular candidate for the yearly elections in Rome. No one attempted even to hide electoral bribery. Reversing one's position was commonplace, and a promise made today could not be expected to be honored tomorrow.

The typical Roman nobleman now had access to many imported luxuries. Austerity and simple life styles were being replaced with elegant homes on the Palatine and Esquiline hills and lavish parties. The stoic foundation of the Republic was crumbling.

Those who were responsible for importing goods and grain into Rome became wealthier than many in the senatorial class. These rich merchants began to demand new power that the Senate did not want to grant to them.

In the face of civic unrests, the Senate had to turn to the military to maintain order. Caesar's claim to be dictator perpetuus signaled the end of the republic. But it was truly buried by the rival political factions and one last civil war. By the time Octavian defeated Antony at the battle of Actium in 30 BCE, the senate and the Roman people wanted security and they saw their hope in the form of one man. Although the government remained in name a republic, everyone was so anxious for peace that they heaped powers on Octavian held by no previous consul. By the time of his death in 14 AD, the empire was firmly in place.

-- J. Jahnige, October 2003