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Until 153 B.C. the Roman senate voted to make January the first month of the year. (There are various eras when this change is said to have occurred. Read more about the calendar in MORES on my home page) Previously the new year began just after the feast of Terminus after the Kalends of March. Rome: new consuls were sworn in after the auspices were taken. A bull was sacrificed to Jupiter as a thanksgiving for the past year. The new consuls promised that their successors would do the same next January and thus asked that they too might be given a good year to govern. We are not told what one did if the previous year was not good.
When Romans prayed elaborately, they began with Janus, god of the front door, and ended with Vesta, goddess of the kitchen. In fact ianua means the house-door. Also, (though the year began in very early times, with March) Janus was the god of beginnings; and January 1st was, as with us, NEW YEARS DAY. On that day, gifts of good omen were exchanged, and unpleasant, ill omened acts and words were avoided. Since the Kalends of January was INAUGURATION DAY for the consuls, everybody did a little of his usual work on New Year's Day as an omen of a successful year. People greeted one another with good wishes and prayers for a happy new year. Gifts included honey, sweet dates and small coins. Later, the celebration of the December Saturnalia ran over into New Year's Day, as with our holiday season.
A two-day celebration, with a 7-day hiatus, held whenever the community finished sowing seeds for the winter crop. The second day of the celebration was held at the nundinae - the 9th or market day. Ceres goddess of grain and Tellus, mother earth, were honored with the sacrifice of a pregnant sow. Pagus refers to a country district, much like a country or parish today
In the country: Farmer set up Shrines with plough and wooden doll for each person in the household.
Purpose: to purify the farm in the coming year and thus insure a good year.
In the city: A hen sacrificed at the crossroad shrines. Three days of celebration followed.
Purpose: for fruitful new year.
The Angonalia was held on 9 January, 17 March, 21 May, and 11 December. On each occasion the rex sacrorum sacrificed a ram, probably an offering to Janus.
The Carmentalia was celebrated to honor Carmentis. Juturnalia, festival of Juturna was on 11 January.
The Sementivae (or Paganalia) was a movable festival that was probably held around this time.. It is not clear whether this was one or two festivals, particularly as it was held on two days with an interval of seven days. It appears to have been a festival of spring sowing or for protection of seed sown the previous autumn, or both. Offerings were made to Tellus on the first day and to Ceres on the second day.
Make a country shrine (This might also be a good competition item). Write a description of your project; cite your sources of which their must be minimally two. Give complete bibliographic details. (You might compare the ancient shrines with roadside and backyard shrines found in many countries today)
In Latin, write about the man and his accomplishments.
February takes its name from febra - objects that ward off evil such as a rabbit's foot, a horseshoe over the door, etc. It was important to avoid evil especially at the end of January and the beginning of February because it was at this time that sinter corps were being planted. One can relate these rites to New Year' resolution. People were full of grand plans to avoid evil during the planting season.
Amburbium was a movable feast that appears to have been held sometime in Febuary to purify the city of Rome. It seems to have involved a procession around the city, accompanied by prayers and sacrifices.
Dies Lunae, a.d. iv nonas Februarias, erit dies ubi marmota monax suam umbram videbit aut non videbit. Omnes eum sollicite exspectant . Marmota monax praeclarissimus est in Punxsutawney Pennsylvania. Nomen ei est Phil. Mos marmotae monacis evolvit ex more Europaeo . Dies "Candlemas".est quoque a.d. iv nonas Februarias. In Britannia, illi cantaverunt: "If Candlemas be fair and bright; Come winter, have another flight. If Candlemas brings clouds and rain, Go Winter, and come not again."
In Germannia, multi ericii (hedgehogs) fuerant et mos erat exspectare ericium et videre si suam umbram videret. Omen malum erat si reverteret ad suum cunniculum (burrow). Multi Germanni migraverunt ad nostram patriam , quorum aliqui in Pennsylvania subsiderunt. Hi mores patriae priorius eiscum apportaverunt. Unus morum erat mos ericii. Sed nulli ericii in Pennsylvania erant! Sic marmota monax ericium reposuit in traditione huius diei.
In Punxsutawney, diei lunae, difficilis erit evitare umbras. Omnes ex televisione et actis diurnis multas luces eiscum apportabunt et nox similis die erit. Sed TU poteris surgere mane et videre si mox erit ver aut si hiems nobiscum diutius. Erit sex plus hebdomades hiemis?
The Fornacalia must have started around 5 February. It was a festival held at Rome on a day appointed by the leaders of the wards (curiae) and ended on 17 February. It appears to have been celebrated to benefit the fornaces (ovens used for parching grain).
Mardi Gras, for the Christian world it is traditionally the last day of Carnival, a season of merriment, before the 40 days of abstinence that precede the Easter celebration. In our country the most famous celebration is in New Orleans.
Origins of Carnival are remote. They stem from religious rites performed throughout history by people often to insure a favorable new year. During the celebrations people decorated oxen, wore fancy dress and masks. These were times in violation of normality...an overindulgence in material pleasures, the use of masks to allow reversal of roles. slaves-masters, men-women; a time of abundance and extravagance. We can trace such celebrations back to Egypt as long ago as 527 B.C. The Egyptian custom spread through Nubia, Ethiopia and Mesopotamia. They were occasions to mark the cycle of season- to propitiate fertility of the soil.
Rome picked up on the custom and carried on the tradition with the LUPERCALIA. This festival honored the wolf that had nourished Romulus and Remus, began on the 15th of Feb and continued for 7 days; There was no business transacted and circuses opened. Carts were drawn by extravagantly decorated animals through the streets. Processions and masquerades took place as well. Doesn't this translate to our concept of parades and floats? Christian ceremony of Candlemas supplanted these pagan rites but many of the customs were retained. Consider the etymology of the words.
MARDI GRAS, French for Fat Tuesday and you guessed it, there is a Latin connection. Mardi is French for Tuesday. Gras is French for fat from Latin crassus - thick, fat, solid. Carnival is from the Latin caro, carnis f. - meat and vale, valete - farewell; put them together and voila-"farewell to meat!"
In New Orleans, floats are created for the many parades by groups called krewes. No, there is no Latin connection here. But the krewes have names and here is the connection to the world of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Many, indeed most, have names from mythology. Here are a few:
Names of other krewes include Centurions, Gladiators and Caesar. Volo Omnes Hilarem Diem Martis Pinquem Habere!
Roman tombs were outside of the city as we learned from the observations of the Cornelian family as they proceeded to Rome. For one Nundinae (the closest thing we have to a week in ancient Rome) people would visit the graves or ashes of their dead parents. They place offerings of flowers, as do we in this country and they also brought goat milk and wine, which they left on the graves or tombs. It was thought that the dead, if hungry, would return to pester the living. You notice that the Nundinae begins with the Ides.
Quis erat Sanctus Valentinus? More than 8 men named Valentine have been proclaimed saints by the Roman Catholic Church, three of whom are indeed associated with this holiday. The one we honor on Feb. 14 was a young priest who was from Rome and was martyred in 270 A.D.
It seems that in the year 270, while Marcus Aurelius Claudius Gothicus was the emperor, and there was great need for more soldiers. Officers were sent into the streets to recruit but found the populace unwilling. Since a married could not serve as a soldier, there were a number of quick marriages. When the emperor heard what was happening, he proclaimed a ban on marriages until the military crisis ended. Enter Father Valentine who challenged the authority of the emperor to ban marriages and secretly married several people. Here one sees the love connection.
He was found out and imprisoned; the story is told that he was befriended by the jailer's daughter, who gave him token gifts. He responded to her kindness with notes. Other stories are that people in the streets tossed flowers to him while he was in jail and other smuggled notes of encouragement and gratitude to him. Father Valentine was eventually beheaded and after time, proclaimed a saint.
Thus the holiday has its origin with Roman times but was not celebrated for years to come. Love poems are plentiful however and Propertius, one of many poets, thought of every day as Valentine's day. He described Cupid as a boy, seeing lovers as foolish and wasting money on fancies. When he added wings and showed the god as flying from the human heart, he was describing love as fickle, tossing men and women about as if in a breeze. Cupid carried barbed arrows, allowing no one who was struck by an arrow to escape.
A second legend tells why messages are sent on this day. Valentinus was said to have grown lovely flowers in his garden. He enjoyed giving them to nearby children. When the emperor placed Valentinus in prison for not preaching of Roman gods, the children missed him. They picked flowers, made bouquets and tied notes to them.
One tale is that the Emperor Claudius II ordered young men not to marry so they would not mind leaving home to serve as soldiers. Valentinus is said to have sided with the young lovers and married many secretly.
The notes attested to their fondness for him. They tossed bouquets through the prison windows. After Valentinus was put to death, people recalled the story. They began to write to their friends on the anniversary of his death-February 14-saying that they loved them. Sometimes they sent flowers as well. An addendum to this legend says that the jailer's daughter befriended Valentinus while he was in prison. She has been blind, Valentinus had prayed with her and she regained her sight. Before dying, Valentinus wrote a farewell note to the child. He ended the note with "From your Valentine".
Other Valentine customs go back to an old Roman holiday, the Lupercalia. This festival was celebrated long before the time of St. Valentine. It began when Rome was a small village. Wolves roamed the nearby woods and Romans invoked the god Lupercus to keep them away from the village. (N.B, Lupus means wolf in Latin)
Every year, on February 15, a festival was held in honor or Lupercus. As Rome grew into a city, wolves were no longer a threat but people enjoyed the festival and continued to celebrate it. They had long since forgotten why the festival had been started. One of the customs was for Roman girls to write their names of small shards or pieces of papyrus and put them into a jar. Each young man would draw the name of the girl who was to be his sweetheart some say for the year, some say for the duration of the festival. Again, Rome, Love and Mid-February became entwined.
Rome had conquered, commanded and influenced most of Europe. When the decline of Rome occurred in the 5th century A.D., Roman customs remained. In time, however, few continued to be able to read and write. Valentine verses were memorized and sung by young men to their lady loves. The first written Valentines began to appear about 1400. The oldest ones of which we know were penned in 1415 by Charles, Duc D'Orleans, a Frenchman captured by the British and imprisoned in the Tower of London. Many of the poems he created can be seen today in the British Museum in London.
By the time of the industrial revolution in the early 19th century, the hand cup and colored valentine card began to be replaced by those made in factories. These were, at first, merely black and white pictures which workers hand colored or purchasers enhanced with their own colored inks. Some had verses preprinted, others were blank to allow the sender to pen his own message. About 1840, factories began to make paper lace. This was then glued to the edges of the one-page cards. Ornamentation was sewn or glued to the center of the card by the workers. Later, folded valentines were created which had printed verse on the inside page. Ornaments of paper or real lace, silk or velvet fabrics, spun glass and feathers were used to enhance the front page of the card. Creating these cards was very time consuming and thus costly. Manufacturers began to make cheaper cards by stamping the pictures directly onto the paper. By the end of the 19th century, valentines could be purchased for a few pennies.
Prior to leaving England, John Winthrop, the first colonial governor of Massachusetts started a letter to his wife: "February 14, 1629. Thou must be my valentine." Early settlers were too busy to make valentines. However, as the years passed, they recalled the valentines of Europe and began the tradition in America. A young man might create a valentine, fold it, seal it with wax and then hand carry it to his lady love. Mail was too expensive and took too long, Often valentine cards contained proposals of marriage. Sometimes a lady might send her response with a valentine as well but most often cards were sent only by men.
Early valentines were often made by folding paper and cutting interesting shapes. When unfolded an intricate design resulted. German settlers in Pennsylvania picked at the paper with pins to create a lacy effect. Silhouettes of the sender delighted the receiver. "The rose is red, the violet blue, Lilies are fair and so are you." Dates back to 1700.
Today in elementary schools and at parties, a Valentine Box is sometimes used from which children might draw cards. When drawing a valentine from a box, we continue the roman tradition of drawing names from an urn. We are keeping a custom that began more than 2000 years ago. It is amazing to think of how many people throughout the years have said, "Be My Valentine!"
When you create your own epistula amatoria, you may choose to inscribe on your card:
"Sis Meus Valentinus!"
Marriages were generally arranged by family members and their friends. A letter from Pliny to Junius Mauricus (Letters 1.14) explains in detail that Pliny feels he has found just the man for his niece. He explains that the man has a proper family background and class status, that he has served as quaestor, tribune and praetor, is attractive and charming. His father is also rich.
Occasionally it was love at first sight, as in the case of the couple mentioned in the following inscription on a tombstone in Rome:
This is the tomb of a darling, saintly sour Puria Spea, a freed woman, (who set up this tomb) to Sempronius Firmus, my dear husband. As boy and girl, we were bound by love at first sight for one another. I lived with him for only a very short time and we by the cruel hand of fate when we should have lived together.
A young Roman maiden's marriage engagement was usually arranged at a meeting of friends at her father's house when articles of the marriage contract or engagement were settled and when it was also agreed about the payment of the dowry (the price of buying a husband). The dowry given by a girl called Thermion to her fiance Appollonius was a pair of gold earrings and silver drachmas (money).
Marriage was considered a practical rather than romantic matter. The basic function of marriage was to provide a stable environment for the production and rearing of family heirs. The dowry was to help the groom's family defray the living expenses of the new wife.
On the occasion of the betrothal, there also generally was a feast (sponsalia), at the end of which the man gave his beloved a ring, usually of iron, as his pledge. A definite day was also agreed upon for the marriage ceremony. A Roman boy could marry from the age of 14 onwards. Girls could marry when they were 12 years old.
Emperor Tiberius promulgated an edict that no man over 60 nor any woman past 50 could marry. The law was unpopular and repealed.
The Roman law made provision for the length of time that a young man and girl should be engaged. If the man who had engaged to marry did not think fit to celebrate the nuptial within two years from the date of the engagement, the girl was released from the contract.
The Roman bride avoided choosing the Kalends, Nonea or Ides of any month or any day in May as her wedding day. The latter half of June was a auspicious time.
On the night before the wedding, the bride dedicated her toys to the family gods who had guarded her childhood. The house was decorated with flowers and, in the houses of noble families, the busts of the family ancestors were brought out for the occasion.
On the wedding day, the bride was dressed in a white ankle-length tunic (tunica recta) which was made from a single piece of cloth woven from top to bottom and belted at the waist. Her hair was parted in the middle, plaited into six plaits and tied with ribbons. On her head she word a bright orange veil. There were different marriage celebrations, but all celebrated the husband's authority over his wife.
Confarreatio - A sacrifice was offered in which a cake made of far (grain) was used. Ten witnesses were required to be present at this ceremony which was performed by the Pontifex Maximus or Flamen Dialis.
Coemptio - Each party pretended to buy the other with a coin. This mutual mock sale demonstrated that the wife became free from the authority of her father and came under the protection of another.
Dextrarum lunctio - This ceremony began with a priest asking the gods if it was a lucky day for the wedding. If he decided that it was, the ceremony continued. The bride and groom signed the marriage register in front of several witnesses. The matron of honor took the right hands of the bride and groom and joined them together. As they held hands the couple prayed that their marriage would be happy. The bride promised, "Wherever you go husband, there go I." (In Latin - "Ubi gaius ego gaia.") The ceremony ended with a sacrifice to the gods.
The groom encircled his bride's third finger of the left hand with a ring of iron because it was believed that from that finger a vein ran to the heart and thus had to be encircled and captured before the marriage could be binding.
Cena nuptialis was a reception in the bride's father's house. Guests drank to the health of the couple and wished them luck.In the evening there was a procession to the groom's house. The bride carried a spindle and distall in her hands to show that, as a wife, one of her jobs was to spin yarn and make cloth. Boys ran in front carrying torches. The remains of these were given to guests as good luck charms. Guests and family followed the couple, singing and shouting. Carrying the bride over the threshold is of Roman origin. The doorway would be anointed with oils and fats as signs for prosperity in the couples' new home. The bride was carried lest she fall and create bad luck.
The Romans did not celebrate St Valentine's day but I am certain they will not object if you wish to commemorate it. Try some of the project suggestions.
What is Lupercalia? It is a feast of purification and one that is very similar to the running with the bulls in Spain today although not as dangerous. It was a time of exchanging gifts with one you cared for. As it falls close to Valentine's Day it is interesting to see some connection. Early Valentine's Day practices found girls walking early in the morning, hoping that the morning dew would help her complexion. This evolved to thoughts that on this day, the first young man she met would be her future. The following passage details the day. Read it for fun. If you want to do an exact translation you can send it to me for 25 pts. Optional test grade. (See Projects for February below)
Duae congeries iuvenium se convenerunt ad Lupercalem in colle Palatino. Cucurrerunt circum collem. Turbae convenerunt ut eos spectarent. Cursores gesserunt pelles caprum sacrificatorum qui sanguine oblinuerunt (smeared) Currentes, spectatores flagellaverunt laciniis (with strips) pellium caprum. Dictum est omnes hos exercitus fecundas facere. Ita, feminae qui infantes volebant, prope cursum steterunt.
Lupercali has been documented by several authors, none the least of which was Cicero. It is also said by Shakespeare in his play Julius Caesar that Calpurnia was told to stand by the procession to have her hand hit by Mark Anthony who was running in the competition.
We have seen a number of celebrations in honor of a harvest. Often members of various gens were sent to the Forum on these feriae to collect special small loaves of bread made from new grain and baked in blessed ovens. Those who did not collect the bread on these special days were called STULTI and were required to make a special offering on this day to Romulus at the temple on the Quirinal Hill. It was Romulus who was said to have created the tribal (gens) system. Romulus was also called Quirinus because it was on this hill that the Sabines settled after their daughters had been carried off by the Romans. They named the hill in honor of their god of war. This date is chosen to commemorate a riot that had occurred on this hill in which Romulus disappeared. It is considered likely his body was dismembered and scattered so that the assassins could not be blamed for killing him. An announcement was made that Romulus had been chosen to ascend to Mt. Olympus to live there with the gods.
The Feralia was the public festival of the dead, held on the last day of the Parentalia, when food was carried to tombs for use by the dead.
Dies natalis Abraham Lincoln est pridie Idus Februarias; dies natalis George Washington est a.d. viii (ix in anno bisextili) Kalendas Martias. Celebramus ambos praefectos in tertio die lunae hoc mense. Hos duos magnos viros in hoc die in memoria tenemus. Nulla classis erit in hoc die. Gaudete!
Hodie est finis celebrationis Parentaliae. Familiae conveniunt et cenant magna cum mense. With all the family gathered together, it was time to give thanks for being alive and to make amends for quarrels or misunderstandings of the past. It was also the end of the original Lunar calendar and so a good way to end a year and start anew.
Terminalia was the Roman god of boundaries and borders. Romans inserted the extra leap day into the calendar at this time - dies bisextilis.
Boundaries were marked with special stones sunk into the ground and considered sacred. When a stone was set, those living on either side of the boundary had to be present and agree with its placement. Incense was scattered on the stone and sacrifices of food and/or live stock were made. The blood of the victim and bones and entrails were placed in or near the hole and burned. The decorated stone was then placed on the fire to smother it. In following years on this date, the property owners would decorate the stone sometimes repeat the sacrifice but generally have a grand feast on this day.
You are familiar with the tale of the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus. Together with his wife (poor lady) and four sons, he was run out of town on 24 February (a.d. v kalenda martias) His exile symbolized the end of the Royal Period and the beginning of the Republic. Commemorating this event, the Rex Sacrorum would perform a sacrifice on the Comitium. The College of Priests Salii watched and at the end of the sacrifice began a dance to drive out evil spirits. Why do you think they were called Salii? They made lots of noise and chanted in Latin: Cum tonas Lucretia, prae te tremunt, cum tibi cunei a dextra tonuerunt. The rex would run away, symbolizing the flight of Tarquinius.
Euqirria was a festival of horseracing in honor of Mars. It was held in the Campus Martius at Rome or it that was flooded, on the Caelian Hill. A similar festival was held on 14 March.
Guidelines for making cards:
Reread love myths of Pyramus and Thisbe, Narcissus and Echo, Cupid and Psyche, Apollo and Daphne, Jupiter and Io, Prosperina and Hades. Write a comparison of these myths. Add others if you like.
See the section describing Lupercalia above for the passage to be translated.
The month Martius is named for Mars, the Roman god of war, the pasture, and agriculture. As father of Romulus, he was a progenitor of the Roman people. At various times through the month, the hills of Rome would offer festivals much like block festivals today. In particular, the Capitoline, Esquiline and Aventine were celebrated.
A ritual at the temple of Vesta that lasted 19 days. It was the rekindling of the sacred fire. Twelve patrician youths dances around Rome during this time and dined at a different home each evening.
Flowers are offered, garlands, Marriage is not propitious, unkempt hair and chanting Matrons dressed in finest garb, carried flowers and small vials of wine, processed to the temple of Juno on top the Esquiline Hill. Sacrifices were offered to Juno for her continued protection. To celebrate one can have musicians and matrons process to a designated spot, carrying a festoons statue of Juno (or call in Juno)
About this time of year the Mediterranean becomes calmer and the shipping season returns to a full schedule. People consider travelling for study or business or to take up a new post in one of the far provinces. It was the priest of Isis, a deity brought to Rome from Egypt, who presided over the blessing of the fleet. A grand procession began at the temple to Isis in Pompeii. The marches festooned a ceremonial boat which was then set adrift. The priest then declared the seas fit for travel. This would be an easy ceremony to recreate.
Cursus in Campo Martio- Feria Martis, deus belli. (cursus - horse races)
(Goddess of the Year) (Ides of March) This is the Ides as well as a festival for Anna Perenna the goddess of the year. People packed picnics to have on the banks of the Tiber. Some believed you marked your longevity by the number of cups of wine consumed.
(Ides of March) The famous death of Gaius Iulius Caesar occured on this day. Much will be done in class on this day.
The Liberalia is the festival of Liber Pater and his consort Libera. It was celebrated with sacrifice, crude songs, and masks hung on trees.
This was the day to honor Bacchus and also the day for boys to remove the bulla and toga praetexta and don the toga virilis to toga libera. This new toga signified him eligible to vote as a citizen. The bulla was placed on the altar and retrieved by the mother who would keep it. Should her son ever celebrate a triumph out would come the bulla again to war of the evil that envious bystanders might think.
Let me know if you can find a Latin connection.
This day was called Quinquatrus because it was the fifth day after the Ides of March. It came to be regarded as the start of a five-day festival and holiday (the greater Quinquatrus) in honor of Mars. Although, originally a festival to honor Mars, it changed to Minerva whose temple on the Aventine is said to have been dedicated on 19 March. The festival was especially celebrated by those who honored Minerva such as spinners, weavers, artisans, artists, poets painters, teachers and students. During the 5 days of the festival, there were no classes. It was at this time that teachers received their yearly stipend. On the first day, the Pontifex Maximus offer sacrifices in the temple of Minerva. On the last day, patrons offered dinners for the friends and clients. In between, games, plays and contest were held. Following this festival, students began new courses of study.
Sacred trumpets of war were purified at a ceremony to Mars to ask for success in the coming battle season (after crops are planted).
Easter is calculated as the 1st Sunday after the 1st full moon after March 21 the nominal Equinox. It takes 5.7 million years to repeat the same combination.
Hic dies vocatur Festu Paschalis. The root of the Latin is the Hebrew word for Passover, pesah meaning "step over." The word surfaces in French with La Pâque for Passover and Le Pâques for Easter. We get our word Easter from the German Oster which itself is derived from Eastre or Ishtar, a pagan Germanic goddess whose festival at the vernal equinox celebrated hopes for a good planting season and thus a good harvest. Egg coloring dates back to early Egyptian and Persian times as a symbol of spring and new growth, etc. Vocabulary: Laeta Pascha - Happy Easter; Laetus Transitus - Joyful Passover.
Guidelines for making cards:
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